Presa Tres Gargantas Pdf
Simple English: The Three Gorges Dam is a in the region on the in, in the country of. One of the largest dams in the world, it also generates the biggest amount of power (22,250 ), pushing the massive in from first place to second place.
The Three Gorges Dam project was completed on October 30, 2008. The dam was built for control, and electricity.
However, this has not come without problems. The dam covers a lot of sites and has caused 1.24 million people to lose their homes under the rising water.
Map of the location of the Three Gorges Dam and the most important cities along the Yangtze RiverA large dam across the Yangtze River was originally envisioned by in The International Development of China, in 1919. He stated that a dam capable of generating 30 million horsepower (22 GW) was possible downstream of the. In 1932, the Nationalist government, led by, began preliminary work on plans in the Three Gorges. In 1939, occupied and surveyed the area. A design, the Otani plan, was completed for the dam in anticipation of a Japanese victory over China.In 1944, the head design engineer, surveyed the area and drew up a dam proposal for the 'Yangtze River Project'. Some 54 Chinese engineers went to the U.S.
For training. The original plans called for the dam to employ a unique method for moving ships; the ships would move into locks located at the lower and upper ends of the dam and then cranes with cables would move the ships from one lock to the next. In the case of smaller water craft, groups of craft would be lifted together for efficiency. It is not known whether this solution was considered for its water-saving performance or because the engineers thought the difference in height between the river above and below the dam too great for alternative methods. Some exploration, survey, economic study, and design work was done, but the government, in the midst of the, halted work in 1947.After the 1949 Communist takeover, supported the project, but began the project nearby first, and economic problems including the and the slowed progress. After the, in 1956, Mao Zedong authored 'Swimming', a poem about his fascination with a dam on the Yangtze River. In 1958, after the, some engineers who spoke out against the project were imprisoned.During the 1980s, the idea of a dam reemerged.
The approved the dam in 1992: out of 2,633 delegates, 1,767 voted in favour, 177 voted against, 664 abstained, and 25 members did not vote. Construction started on December 14, 1994. The dam was expected to be fully operational in 2009, but additional projects, such as the underground with six additional generators, delayed full operation until May 2012. The ship lift was completed in 2015. The dam had raised the water level in the reservoir to 172.5 m (566 ft) above sea level by the end of 2008 and the designed maximum level of 175 m (574 ft) by October 2010. Composition and dimensions. Earthfill south dam in foreground with view along main dam.
The wall beyond is to separate spillway and turbine flows from the lock and ship lift upstream approach channel. A similar separation is used on the downstream side, seen partially in the preceding image.Made of concrete and steel, the dam is 2,335 m (7,661 ft) long and the top of the dam is 185 m (607 ft) above sea level. The project used 27.2 × 10 ^ 6 m 3 (35.6 × 10 ^ 6 cu yd) of concrete (mainly for the dam wall), used 463,000 T of steel (enough to build 63 ), and moved about 102.6 × 10 ^ 6 m 3 (134.2 × 10 ^ 6 cu yd) of earth. The concrete dam wall is 181 m (594 ft) high above the rock basis.When the water level is at its maximum of 175 m (574 ft) above sea level, 110 m (361 ft) higher than the river level downstream, the dam reservoir is on average about 660 km (410 mi) in length and 1.12 km (3,675 ft) in width. It contains 39.3 km 3 (31,900,000 ) of water and has a total surface area of 1,045 km 2 (403 sq mi). On completion, the reservoir flooded a total area of 632 km 2 (244 sq mi) of land, compared to the 1,350 km 2 (520 sq mi) of reservoir created by the. Economics The government estimated that the Three Gorges Dam project would cost 180 billion yuan (US$22.5 billion).
By the end of 2008, spending had reached 148.365 billion yuan, among which 64.613 billion yuan was spent on construction, 68.557 billion yuan on relocating affected residents, and 15.195 billion yuan on financing. It was estimated in 2009 that the construction cost would be recovered when the dam had generated 1,000 (3,600 PJ) of electricity, yielding 250 billion yuan. Full cost recovery was thus expected to occur ten years after the dam started full operation, but the full cost of the Three Gorges Dam was recovered by December 20, 2013.Funding sources include the Three Gorges Dam Construction Fund, profits from the, loans from the, loans from domestic and foreign commercial banks, and revenue from both before and after the dam is fully operational. Additional charges were assessed as follows: Every province receiving power from the Three Gorges Dam had to pay ¥7.00 per MWh extra. Other provinces had to pay an additional charge of ¥4.00 per MWh. The pays no surcharge. Electricity production in China by source.
Compare: The fully completed Three Gorges dam will contribute about 100 TWh of generation per year.Power generation is managed by, a listed subsidiary of (CTGC)—a Central Enterprise administered. The Three Gorges Dam is the world's largest capacity hydroelectric power station with 34 generators: 32 main generators, each with a capacity of 700 MW, and two plant power generators, each with capacity of 50 MW, making a total capacity of 22,500 MW. Among those 32 main generators, 14 are installed in the north side of the dam, 12 in the south side, and the remaining six in the in the mountain south of the dam. Annual electricity generation in 2015 was 87 TWh, which is 20 times more than the Hoover Dam. Generators The main generators weigh about 6,000 tonnes each and are designed to produce more than 700 MW of power. The designed of the generator is 80.6 meters (264 ft). The flow rate varies between 600–950 cubic metres per second (21,000–34,000 cu ft/s) depending on the head available.
The greater the head, the less water needed to reach full power. Three Gorges uses. Turbine diameter is 9.7/10.4 m (VGS design/Alstom's design) and rotation speed is 75 revolutions per minute. This means that in order to generate power at 50, the generator rotors have 80 poles. Rated power is 778, with a maximum of 840 MVA and a of 0.9. The generator produces electrical power at 20.
The electricity generated is then stepped-up to 500 for transmission at 50 Hz. The outer diameter of the generator is 21.4/20.9 m. The inner diameter is 18.5/18.8 m. The stator, the biggest of its kind, is 3.1/3 m in height. Bearing load is 5050/5500 tonnes. Average efficiency is over 94%, and reaches 96.5%.
Three Gorges DamThe generators were manufactured by two joint ventures: one of them, and the Chinese company Harbin Motor; the other, (abbreviated as VGS), and the Chinese company Oriental Motor. The technology transfer agreement was signed together with the contract. Most of the generators are water-cooled. Some newer ones are air-cooled, which are simpler in design and manufacture and are easier to maintain. Generator installation progress The first north side main generator (No. 2) started on July 10, 2003; the north side became completely operational September 7, 2005, with the implementation of generator No. 9. Full power (9,800 MW) was only reached on October 18, 2006, after the water level reached 156 m.The 12 south side main generators are also in operation. No. 22 began operation on June 11, 2007, and No. 15 started up on October 30, 2008.
The sixth (No. 17) began operation on December 18, 2007, raising capacity to 14.1 GW, finally surpassing (14.0 GW), to become the world's largest hydro power plant by capacity.As of May 23, 2012, when the last main generator, No. 27, finished its final test, the six underground main generators are also in operation, raising capacity to 22.5 GW. After nine years of construction, installation and testing, the power plant is now fully operational.
Output milestones Annual Production of ElectricityYearNumber ofinstalled unitsTWh2000000000000010101010101010101832100+. Yangtze River flow rate comparing to the dam intake capacityBy August 16, 2011, the plant had generated 500 TWh of electricity. In July 2008 it generated 10.3 TWh of electricity, its first month over 10 TWh. On June 30, 2009, after the river flow rate increased to over 24,000 m 3, all 28 generators were switched on, producing only 16,100 MW because the head available during flood season is insufficient.
During an August 2009 flood, the plant first reached its maximum output for a short period.During the November to May dry season, power output is limited by the river's flow rate, as seen in the diagrams on the right. When there is enough flow, power output is limited by plant generating capacity. The maximum power-output curves were calculated based on the average flow rate at the dam site, assuming the water level is 175 m and the plant gross efficiency is 90.15%. The actual power output in 2008 was obtained based on the monthly electricity sent to the grid.The Three Gorges Dam reached its design-maximum reservoir water level of 175 m (574 ft) for the first time on October 26, 2010, in which the intended annual power-generation capacity of 84.7 TWh was realized. In 2012, the dam's 32 generating units generated a record 98.1 TWh of electricity, which accounts for 14% of China's total hydro generation.
Distribution The and paid a flat rate of ¥250 per MWh (US$35.7) until July 2, 2008. Since then, the price has varied by province, from ¥228.7–401.8 per MWh. Higher-paying customers, such as, receive priority. Nine provinces and two cities consume power from the dam.Power distribution and transmission infrastructure cost about 34.387 billion Yuan. Construction was completed in December 2007, one year ahead of schedule.Power is distributed over multiple 500 (kV) transmission lines.
Three (DC) lines to the East China Grid carry 7,200 MW: Three Gorges – Shanghai (3,000 MW), (3,000 MW), and (1,200 MW). The (AC) lines to the Central China Grid have a total capacity of 12,000 MW. The DC transmission line to the South China Grid has a capacity of 3,000 MW.The dam was expected to provide 10% of China's power. However, electricity demand has increased more quickly than previously projected. Even fully operational, on average, it supports only about 1.7% of electricity demand in China in the year of 2011, when the Chinese electricity demand reached 4692.8 TWh.
Environmental impact. Flood mark on Yangtze river Emissions According to the National Development and Reform Commission of China, 366 grams of coal would produce 1 kWh of electricity during 2006. At full power, Three Gorges reduces coal consumption by 31 million tonnes per year, avoiding 100 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions, millions of tonnes of dust, one million tonnes of, 370,000 tonnes of, 10,000 tonnes of, and a significant amount of.
Hydropower saves the energy needed to mine, wash, and transport the coal from northern China.From 2003 to 2007, power production equaled that of 84 million tonnes of standard coal, reducing carbon dioxide by 190 million tonnes, sulfur dioxide by 2.29 million tonnes, and nitrogen oxides by 980,000 tonnes.The dam increased the Yangtze's barge capacity sixfold, reducing carbon dioxide emission by 630,000 tonnes. From 2004 to 2007, a total of 198 million tonnes of goods passed through the ship locks. Compared to using trucking, barges reduced carbon dioxide emission by ten million tonnes and lowered costs by 25%. Erosion and sedimentation Two hazards are uniquely identified with the dam. One is that sedimentation projections are not agreed upon, and the other is that the dam sits on a seismic fault. At current levels, 80% of the land in the area is experiencing erosion, depositing about 40 million tons of into the annually.
Because the flow is slower above the dam, much of this sediment will now settle there instead of flowing downstream, and there will be less sediment downstream.The absence of downstream has three effects:. Some hydrologists expect downstream riverbanks to become more vulnerable to flooding. Shanghai, more than 1,600 km (990 mi) away, rests on a massive sedimentary plain. The 'arriving silt—so long as it does arrive—strengthens the bed on which Shanghai is built. The less the tonnage of arriving sediment the more vulnerable is this biggest of Chinese cities to inundation.' . sediment buildup causes biological damage and reduces aquatic.Landslides Erosion in the reservoir, induced by rising water, causes frequent major that have led to noticeable disturbance in the reservoir surface, including two incidents in May 2009 when somewhere between 20,000 and 50,000 cubic metres (26,000 and 65,000 cu yd) of material plunged into the flooded Wuxia Gorge of the.
Also, in the first four months of 2010, there were 97 significant landslides. Waste management. Collecting garbage at the Dam's southeast cornerThe dam catalyzed improved upstream treatment around and its suburban areas. According to the Ministry of Environmental Protection, as of April 2007, more than 50 new plants could treat 1.84 million tonnes per day, 65% of the total need. About 32 landfills were added, which could handle 7,664.5 tonnes of solid waste every day. Over one billion tons of wastewater are released annually into the river, which was more likely to be swept away before the reservoir was created.
This has left the water looking stagnant, polluted and murky. Forest cover In 1997, the Three Gorges area had 10% forestation, down from 20% in the 1950s.Research by the suggested that the Asia-Pacific region would, overall, gain about 6,000 km 2 (2,300 sq mi) of forest by 2008. That is a significant change from the 13,000 km 2 (5,000 sq mi) net loss of forest each year in the 1990s. This is largely due to China's large reforestation effort. This accelerated after the convinced the government that it must restore tree cover, especially in the Yangtze's basin upstream of the Three Gorges Dam. Wildlife. This section needs to be updated.
Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( October 2017)Concerns about the potential wildlife impact of the dam predate the 's approval in 1992.
This region has long been known for its rich biodiversity. It is home to 6,388 species of plants, which belong to 238 families and 1508 genera. Of these plant species, 57 percent are endangered. These rare species are also used as ingredients in traditional Chinese medicines.
Already, the percentage of forested area in the region surrounding the Three Gorges Dam has dropped from twenty percent in 1950 to less than ten percent as of 2002, negatively affecting all plant species in this locality. The region also provides habitats to hundreds of freshwater and terrestrial animal species. Freshwater fish are especially affected by dams due to changes in the water temperature and flow regime.
Many other fish are hurt in the turbine blades of the hydroelectric plants as well. This is particularly detrimental to the ecosystem of the region because the Yangtze River basin is home to 361 different fish species and accounts for twenty-seven percent of all endangered freshwater fish species in China.
Other aquatic species have been endangered by the dam, particularly the baiji, or, now extinct. In fact, Government Chinese scholars even claim that the Three Gorges Dam directly caused the extinction of the baiji.Of the 3,000 to 4,000 remaining, a large number currently spend the winter in wetlands that will be destroyed by the Three Gorges Dam. The dam contributed to the of the Yangtze river dolphin. Though it was close to this level even at the start of construction, the dam further decreased its habitat and increased ship travel, which are among the factors causing what will be its ultimate demise. In addition, populations of the are guaranteed to be 'negatively affected' by the dam. Terrestrial impact In 2010, NASA scientists calculated that shift of water mass stored by the dams would increase the length of the 's day by 0.06 microseconds and make the Earth slightly more round in the middle and flat on the.
Floods, agriculture, industry An important function of the dam is to control flooding, which is a major problem for the seasonal river of the Yangtze. Millions of people live downstream of the dam, with many large, important cities like, and Shanghai situated adjacent to the river. Plenty of farm land and China's most important industrial area are built beside the river.The reservoir's flood storage capacity is 22 cubic kilometres (5.3; 18,000,000 ).
This capacity will reduce the frequency of major downstream flooding from once every 10 years to once every 100 years. The dam is expected to minimize the effect of even a 'super' flood. 193,000 km 2 (74,500 sq mi), killing 33,169 people and forcing 18,884,000 people to move. The flood covered Wuhan, a city of eight million people, for over three months, and the was out of service for more than 100 days.
The 1954 flood carried 50 cubic kilometres (12 cu mi) of water. The dam could only divert the water above Chenglingji, leaving 30 to 40 km 3 (7.2 to 9.6 cu mi) to be diverted.
Also, the dam cannot protect against some of the large tributaries downstream, including the, and the.caused billions of dollars in damage; 2,039 km 2 (787 sq mi) of farm land were flooded. The flood affected more than 2.3 million people, killing 1,526. In early August 2009, the largest flood in five years passed through the dam site. The dam limited the water flow to less than 40,000 cubic metres (1,400,000 cu ft) per second, raising the upstream water level from 145.13 m (476.1 ft) on August 1, 2009, to 152.88 m (501.6 ft) on August 8, 2009. A full 4.27 km 3 (1.02 cu mi) of flood water was captured and the river flow was cut by as much as 15,000 m 3 (530,000 cu ft) per second.The dam discharges its reservoir during the dry season between December and March every year. This increases the flow rate of the river downstream, and provides fresh water for agricultural and industrial usage. It also improves shipping conditions.
The water level upstream drops from 175 to 145 m (574 to 476 ft), preparing for the rainy season. The water also powers the downstream.Since the filling of the reservoir in 2003, the Three Gorges Dam has supplied an extra 11 km 3 (2.6 cu mi) of fresh water to downstream cities and farms during the dry season.During the in July, inflows at the Three Gorges Dam reached a peak of 70,000 m 3/s (2,500,000 cu ft/s), exceeding the peak during the. The dam's reservoir rose nearly 3 m (9.8 ft) in 24 hours and reduced the outflow to 40,000 m 3/s (1,400,000 cu ft/s) in discharges downstream, effectively alleviating serious impacts on the middle and lower river. Navigating the dam Locks. The other end of Three gorges dam lock, note the Bridge in the backgroundThe installation of is intended to increase river shipping from ten million to 100 million tonnes annually, as a result transportation costs will be cut between 30 and 37%. Shipping will become safer, since the gorges are notoriously dangerous to navigate.
Ships with much deeper draft will be able to navigate 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) upstream from Shanghai all the way to. It is expected that shipping to Chongqing will increase fivefold.There are two series of ship locks installed near the dam ( ).
Each of them is made up of five stages, with transit time at around four hours. Maximum vessel size is 10,000 tons. The locks are 280 m long, 35 m wide, and 5 m deep (918 × 114 × 16.4 ft). That is 30 m (98 ft) longer than those on the, but half as deep.
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Before the dam was constructed, the maximum freight capacity at the Three Gorges site was 18.0 million tonnes per year. From 2004 to 2007, a total of 198 million tonnes of freight passed through the locks. The freight capacity of the river increased six times and the cost of shipping was reduced by 25%. The total capacity of the ship locks is expected to reach 100 million tonnes per year.These locks are, whereby inner lock gate pairs serve as both the upper gate and lower gate.
The are the vulnerable hinged type, which, if damaged, could temporarily render the entire flight unusable. As there are separate sets of locks for upstream and downstream traffic, this system is more water efficient than bi-directional staircase locks.Ship lift. The shiplift, a kind of elevator, can lift vessels of up to 3,000 tonnes, at a fraction of the time to transit the staircase locks.In addition to the canal locks, there is a, a kind of elevator for vessels. The ship lift can lift ships of up to 3,000 tons.
The vertical distance traveled is 113 m (371 ft), and the size of the ship lift's basin is 120 m × 18 m × 3.5 m (394 ft × 59 ft × 11 ft). The ship lift takes 30 to 40 minutes to transit, as opposed to the three to four hours for stepping through the locks. One complicating factor is that the water level can vary dramatically. Longitudinal profile of upstream Yangtze RiverIn order to maximize the utility of the Three Gorges Dam and cut down on sedimentation from the, the upper course of the Yangtze River, authorities plan to build a series of dams on the Jinsha, including, along with the now completed and dams.
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二、加快构建长期翻坝运输体系，并将疏港交通项目纳入三峡后扶规划。支持建设三峡大坝坝首太平溪至夷陵区张家口36.2公里的三峡翻坝高速公路江北段，与沪蓉高速公路互通；支持建设南北两岸三峡翻坝铁路，即夷陵太平溪港――宜昌火车东站――白洋田家河港88公里的北岸翻坝铁路，秭归茅坪港――宜昌火车南站――焦柳铁路枝城站95公里的南岸翻坝铁路；支持翻坝港口和翻坝物流园建设，加快形成完善的南北分流、水陆（铁）联运的翻坝转运格局，充分发挥长江黄金水道优势。. Dam in Three Gorges railway preliminary work completed to start the implementation of water and railway transport (in Chinese). October 12, 2012. From the original on September 4, 2015. Retrieved April 20, 2016. 据透露，已经于去年底开工建设的紫云地方铁路,预计明年建成通车。紫云地方铁路接轨于国家铁路焦柳线枝江站，连接猇亭、白洋、姚家港三大开发区以及云池、白洋、田家河、姚家港四大港口，线路总长36.5公里，建成后年货运能力将达到1500万吨。.
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